History of kidney transplantation

The article is devoted to the history of kidney transplantation as a medical technology, covering three key stages: the period of awareness, formation, and establishment. The work thoroughly examines the evolution of understanding kidney function, starting from ancient times, and the development of renal replacement therapies, including dialysis and early transplantation experiments. Special attention is paid to the contributions of scientists and surgeons such as Emerich Ullmann, Alexis Carrel, Yuriy Voronoy, and Joseph Murray in developing surgical techniques and overcoming immunological barriers. Key achievements in organ preservation, tissue immunology, and immunosuppression, which made successful allotransplantations possible, are described. The history of transplantology in Russia is separately highlighted, including the early experiments of V.P. Demikhov and successful clinical operations under the guidance of B.V. Petrovsky. The article emphasizes that modern kidney transplantation is the result of centuries of efforts by numerous researchers whose work laid the foundation for saving thousands of lives.

1. Kabanova S.A., Bogopol’skiy P.M. Kidney transplant: history, results and perspectives (The 50th anniversary of the first successful kidney transplant in Russia). Transplantologiya. The Russian Journal of Transplantation. 2015;(2):49-58. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.23873/2074-0506-2015-0-2-104

2. Matevosyan E., Norbert H., Sushkov S.A., Jörg N., Pakhomova Yu.V. History of kidney transplantation. Journal of Siberian Medical Sciences. 2014;1:39. (In Russ.)

3. Khubutia A.Sh., Kabanova S.A. History of domestic transplantology, priorities and development features. Transplantology. 2011;1:55-65. (In Russ.)

4. Gulyaev V.A., Khubutiya M.Sh., Novruzbekov M.S., Mironov A.S., Olisov O.D., Lutsyk K.N., Zhuravel S.V., Magomedov K.M., Akhmetshin R.B., Yaremin B.I. Xenotransplantation: history, problems and development prospects. Transplantologiya. The Russian Journal of Transplantation. 2019;11(1):37-54. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.23873/2074-0506-2019-11-1-37-54

5. Verteletsky Ya.A. V.F. Voyno-Yasenetsky and animal-to-human kidney transplantation: fact or urban legend. Bulletin of the Reaviz Medical Institute: rehabilitation, doctor and health. 2022; 2 (56) Special Issue: 57-58. (In Russ.)

6. Alsberg C.L., Black O.F. Contributions to the study of maize deteriotation. U S Dept Agr Plant Ind Bull. 1913;270:5-48.

7. Anderson D, Billingham RE, Lampkin GH, Medawar PB. The use of skin grafting to distinguish between monozygotic and dizygotic twins in cattle. Hered-ity 195;5:379-397.

8. Angeletti LR, Cavarra B. Critical and historical approach to Theophilus’ De Urinis. Urine as blood’s percolation made by the kidney and uroscopy in the middle ages. Am J Nephrol. 1994;14(4-6):282-289. https://doi.org/10.1159/000168786

9. Avicenna 980-1037. A Treatise on the Canon of Medicine of Avicenna, Incorporating a Translation of the First Book. London : Luzac & co., 1930;1930. https://search.library.wisc.edu/catalog/999714469602121

10. Barber WH, Mankin JA, Laskow DA, Deierhoi MH, Julian BA, Curtis JJ, Diethelm AG. Long term results of a controlled prospective study with transfusion of donor specific bone marrow in 57 cadaveric renal allograft recipients. Transplantation. 1991;51:70-75.

11. Belzer FO, Alessandro AM, Hoffman RM, Knechtle SJ, Reed A, Pirsch JD, Kalayoglum M, Sollinger HW. The use of UW solution in clinical transplantation—A four year experience. Ann Surg. 1992;215:579-585.

12. Belzer FO, Ashby BS, Dunphy JE. 24-hour and 72-hour preservation of canine kidneys. Lancet. 1967;2:536-538.

13. Billingham RE, Brent L, Medawar PB. “Actively acquired tolerance” of foreign cells. Nature. 1953;172:603-606.

14. Billingham RE, Krohn PL, Medawar PB. Effect of cortisone on survival of skin homografts in rabbits. BMJ. 1951;1:1157-1158.

15. Billingham RE, Medawar PB. Pigment spread and cell heredity in guinea pigs. Heredity. 1948;2:29–47.

16. Billingham RE. Reminiscenses of a transplanter. In History of transplantation: Thirty-five recollections (ed. Terasaki P). 1991:73-91. UCLATissue Typing Laboratory, Los Angeles.

17. Borel JF, Feurer C, Gubler HU, Stahelin H. Biological effects of cyclosporin A: A new antilymphocytic agent. Agents Actions. 1976;6:468-475.

18. Borst M, Enderlen E Über Transplantation von Gefäßen und ganzen Organen. Dtsch Z Chir. 1909;99:54–163.

19. Borst M, Enderlen E. Beiträge zur Gefässchirurgie und zur Organtransplantation. Munch Med Wochenschr. 1910;57:1865–1871.

20. Bowman, William. On the structure and use of the Malpighian bodies of the kidney, with observations on the circulation through that gland. Philo-sophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 1842;132:57-80. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1842.0005

21. Brent L. A history of transplantation immunology, 1997. pp. 70–71, 313. Academic Press, Los Angeles.

22. Brent LA. Tolerance and GVHD: An exciting decade. In History of transplantation, thirty-five recollections (ed. Terasaki P), 1991. pp. 93–109. UCLATis-sue Typing Laboratory, Los Angeles.

23. Brosig W, Nagel R. Klinische Probleme der Nierentransplantation beim Menschen. Urologe. 1965;1(4):1–8.

24. Brosig W, Nagel R Nierentransplantation. Walterde Gruyter-Verlag, Berlin, 1965.

25. Brown JB. Homografting of skin: With report of success in identical twins. Surgery. 1937:558-563.

26. Bullingham RES, Nicholls AJ, Kamm BR. Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Mycophenolate Mofetil: Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 1998;34(6):429-455. https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-199834060-00002

27. Burg MB, Grantham J, Abramow M, Orloff J, Schafer JA. Preparation and study of fragments of single rabbit nephrons. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1997;8(4):675-683.

28. Burg MB, Knepper MA. Single tubule perfusion techniques. Kidney Int. 1986;30(2):166-170. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.1986.168

29. Calne R. Cyclosporine as a milestone in immunosuppression. Transplant Proc. 2004;36(2 Suppl):13S-15S. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2004.01.042

30. Calne RY, Rolles K, White DJG, Thiru S, Evans DB, McMaster P, Dunn DC, Craddock GN, Henderson RG, et al. Cyclosporin A initially as the only immuno-suppressant in 34 recipients of cadaveric organs; 32 kidneys, 2 pancreases, and 2 livers. Lancet. 1979;2:1033–1036.

31. Calne RY, Sells RA, Penna JR, Davis DR, Millard PR, Herbertson BM, Binns RM, Davies DA. Induction of immunological tolerance by porcine liver allo-grafts. Nature. 1969;223:472-476.

32. Calne RY. The rejection of renal homografts: Inhibition in dogs by 6-mercaptopurine. Lancet. 1960;1:417-418.

33. Cambiaghi M. Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564). Journal of Neurology. 2017;264(8):1828-1830. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-017-8459-2

34. Cameron JS. Bright’s Disease Today: The Pathogenesis and Treatment of Glomerulonephritis I. BMJ. 1972;4(5832):87-90. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.4.5832.87

35. Cannon WB. The Wisdom of the Body. New York: WW Norton & Co. Inc; 1932.

36. Carrel A Der Mensch das unbekannte Wesen. Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, Stuttgart, 1957.

37. Carrel A. La technique operatoire des anastomoses vasculaires et la transplantation des viscères. Lyon Med. 1902;98:859.

38. Carrel A. The transplantation of organs. New York Times. April 14, 1914.

39. Carrell A La technique operatoire des anastomosis vasculaires et al transplantations. Lyon Med. 1902;98:859–862.

40. Carrell A Transplantation in the mass of the kidneys. JExp Med. 1908;10:98–103.

41. Carreras-Planella L, Monguió-Tortajada M, Palma È, Borràs FE, Franquesa M. Stem Cells: Immunotherapy in Solid Organ Transplantation. In: Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences. Elsevier; 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801238-3.65441-7

42. Chung J, Kuo CJ, Crabtree GR, Blenis J. Rapamycin-FKBP specifically blocks growth-dependent activation of and signaling by the 70 kd S6 protein kinas-es. Cell. 1992;69(7):1227-1236. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-8674(92)90643-Q

43. Churchill W. 1944. My early life, p. 211. MacMillan, London.

44. Collins GM, Bravo-Shugarman M, Terasaki PI. Kidney preservation for transportation. Initial perfusion and 30 hours’ ice storage. Lancet. 1969;2(7632):1219-1222. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(69)90753-3

45. Cosimi AB, Colvin RB, Burton RC, Rubin RH, Goldstein G, Kung PC, Hansen WP, Delmonico FL, Russell PS. Use of monoclonal antibodies to T-cell subsets for immunological monitoring and treatment in recipients of renal allografts. N Engl J Med. 1981;305:308-314.

46. Cushny AR. The Secretion of the Urine. Longmans, Green and Company; 1917. https://books.google.es/books?id=a8k0AQAAMAAJ

47. Dausset J The challenge oft the early days of human histocompatibility. Immunogenetics. 1980;10:1.

48. Dausset J. Isoleuco-anticorps. Acta Haematol 20: 1958.

49. DeBroe ME, Sacré D, Snelders ED, De Weerdt DL. The Flemish Anatomist Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) and the Kidney. American Journal of Nephrology. 1997;17(3-4):252-260. https://doi.org/10.1159/000169110

50. Dempster WJ. Kidney homotransplantation. Br J Surg. 1953a;40:447-465.

51. Dempster WJ. The effects of cortisone on the homotransplanted kidney. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther. 1953b;95:253-282.

52. Diamandopoulos A, Goudas P. Juxtaposition of Actuarius’ versus Galen’s ideas on renal physiology: the impact of 12 centuries. J Nephrol. 2009;22 Suppl 14:21-32.

53. Diamandopoulos A, Goudas P. The Role of the Kidney as a Religious, Cultural and Sexual Symbol. American Journal of Nephrology. 2002;22(2-3):107-111. https://doi.org/10.1159/000063747

54. Dreikorn K Geschichte und Entwicklung der klinischen Nierentransplantation in Deutschland aus urologischer Sicht. In: Arbeitskreis Geschichte der Urologie (Hrsg) Urologie in Deutschland. 2007.

55. Druml W The beginning of organ transplantation: Emerich Ullmann (1861–1937). Wien Kiln Wschr 114(4):128–137.

56. Eftychiadis AC. Renal and glomerular circulation according to Oribasius (4th century). Am J Nephrol. 2002;22(2-3):136-138. https://doi.org/10.1159/000063751

57. Ekberg H, Grinyó J, Nashan B, et al. Cyclosporine sparing with mycophenolate mofetil, daclizumab and corticosteroids in renal allograft recipients: the CAESAR Study. Am J Transplant. 2007;7(3):560-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2006.01645.x

58. Fine LG. William Bowman’s description of the glomerulus. Am J Nephrol. 1985;5(6):437-440. https://doi.org/10.1159/000166979

59. Flexner S. 1914. Report on Cancer. Report of the Director of Laboratories to the Scientific Directors. RURG 439. Rockefeller Archives, p. 322. Rockefeller Archives Center, Sleepy Hollow, NY.

60. Gibson T, Medawar PB. The fate of skin homografts in man. J Anat. 1943;77:299-310.

61. Goldman M. Lister Ward, 1987:118–119. Hilger, Bristol, UK.

62. Goodwin WE, Martin EC. Transplantation of the kidney. Urol Surv. 1963;13:229–248.

63. Gowans JL, McGreggor DD, Cowan DM. The role of small lymphocytes in the rejection of homografts of skin. In The immunologically competent cell (ed. Ciba Foundation Study Group). 1963;16:20. Churchill, London.

64. Gowans JL. The effect of the continuous reinfusion of lymph and lymphocytes on the output of lymphocytes from the thoracic duct of unanesthetized rats. Br J Exp Pathol. 1957;38:67-81.

65. Greydanus D, Kadochi M. Reflections on the Medical History of the Kidney: From Alcmaeon of Croton to Richard Bright – Standing on the Shoulders of Giants. Journal of Integrative Nephrology and Andrology. 2016;3(4):101. https://doi.org/10.4103/2394-2916.193496

66. Greydanus DE, Merrick J, eds. Medical History: Some Perspectives. Second edition. Nova Biomedical; 2018.

67. Groth CG, Brent LB, Calne RY, Dausset JB, Good RA, Murray JE, Shumway NE, Schwartz RS, Starzl TE, Gruner OC. A Treatise on the Canon of Medicine of Avicenna. Incorporating a Translation of the First Book. Published online 1984.

68. Guthrie CC. 1909. On misleading statements. Science 29.

69. Hamburger J, Vaysse J, Crosnier J, Auvert J, Lalanne CL, Hopper J Jr. Renal homotransplantation in man after radiation of the recipient. Am J Med. 1962;32:854-871.

70. Hamburger J, Vaysse J, Crosnier J, Tubiana M, Lalanne CM, Antoine B, Auvert J, Soulier JP, Dormont J, Salmon C, et al. Transplantation of a kidney be-tween non-monozygotic twins after irradiation of the receiver: Good function at the fourth month. Presse Med. 1959;67:1771-1775.

71. Hamilton D. A history of organ transplantation. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh. 2012.

72. Hamilton D. Alexis Carrel and the early days of tissue transplantation. Transplantation Reviews. 1988;2:1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0955-470X(88)80003-X

73. Harvard Medical School. A definition of irreversible coma, 1968. Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School to examine the definition of brain death. JAMA. 1984;252:677 679.

74. Hatanaka H, Iwami M, Kino T, Goto T, Okuhara M. FR-900520 and FR-900523, novel immunosuppressants isolated from a Streptomyces. I. Taxonomy of the producing strain. J Antibiot. 1988;41(11):1586-1591. https://doi.org/10.7164/antibiotics.41.1586

75. Hatzinger M, Stastny M, Grützmacher P, Sohn M. [The history of kidney transplantation]. Urologe A. 2016;55(10):1353-1359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00120-016-0205-3

76. Heitman J. On the Discovery of TOR As the Target of Rapamycin. PLOS Pathogens. 2015;11(11):e1005245. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1005245

77. Heusler K, Pletscher A. The controversial early history of cyclosporin. Swiss Med Wkly. 2001;131(21-22):299-302. https://doi.org/2001/21/smw-09702

78. Hippocrates, Schiefsky MJ. On Ancient Medicine. Vol 28. Brill; 2005.

79. Hitchings GH, Elion GB. The chemistry and biochemistry of purine analogs. Ann NYAcad Sci. 1954;60:195-199.

80. Hoenig MP, Zeidel ML. Homeostasis, the Milieu Intérieur, and the Wisdom of the Nephron. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 2014;9(7):1272-1281. https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.08860813

81. Holman E. Protein sensitization in iso-skin grafting. Is the latter of practical value? Surg Gyne Obs. 1924;38:100.

82. Hopewell J, Calne RY, Beswick I. Three clinical cases of renal transplantation. BMJ. 1964;1:411-413.

83. Hume DM, Merril JP, Miller BF, Thorn GW Experiences with renal homotransplantation in the human: Report of nine cases. J Clin Invest. 1955;34:327–328.

84. Israel J, Israel W Chirurgie der Niere und des Harnleiters. Georg Thieme Verlag, Leipzig. 1925.

85. Jaboulay M. Greffe de reins au pli du coude par soudures artérielles et veineuses. Lyon Med. 1906;107:575–577.

86. Jaboulay M, Brian E. Recherches expe´rimentales sur la suture at la greffe arte´rielles. Lyon Medicale. 1896;81:97-99.

87. Jaboulay M. Kidney grafts in the antecubital fossa by arterial and venous anastomosis [in French]. Bull Lyon Med. 1906;107:575–577.

88. Jardin A. Renaltransplantation. In: Mattelaer JJ, Schultheiss D (Hrsg) Europe – The Cradle of Urology. History officeofthe European Association of Urology, Arnhem. 2010.

89. Jeger E. Die Chirurgie der Blutgefäße und des HerzensTransplantation der Nieren. August Hirschwald Verlag, Berlin, 1913:181–208.

90. Jensen CO. Experimentelle untersuchungen u¨ber Krebs bei Ma¨usen. Zentralblatt Bacteriol Parasitenkinde. 1903;34:28-34.

91. Kamada N, Brons G, Davies HFFS. Fully allogeneic liver grafting in rats induces a state of systemic nonreactivity to donor transplantation antigens. Transplantation. 1980;29:429-431.

92. Kaporian T, Sherman RA. A brief history of vascular access for hemodialysis: An unfinished story. Semin Nephrol. 1997;17:239-245.

93. Kark RM. A prospect of Richard Bright on the centenary of his death, December 16, 1958. Am J Med. 1958;25(6):819-824. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(58)90055-x

94. Kinne-Saffran E, Kinne RK. Jacob Henle: the kidney and beyond. Am J Nephrol. 1994;14(4-6):355-360. https://doi.org/10.1159/000168747

95. Kino T, Hatanaka H, Hashimoto M, et al. FK-506, a novel immunosuppressant isolated from a Streptomyces. I. Fermentation, isolation, and physico-chemical andbiological characteristics. J Antibiot. 1987;40(9):1249-1255. https://doi.org/10.7164/antibiotics.40.1249

96. Knechtle SJ, Marson LP. Kidney Transplantation: Principles and Practice. 8th ed. Elsevier; 2019.

97. Konert J. Nierentransplantation und Dialyse Zentren, internationale Netzwerke und fachpolitische Bedeutung. In: Halling T, Moll F (Hrsg) Urologie 1945–1990 Entwicklung und Vernetzung der Medizin in beiden deutschen Staaten. Springer Verlag, Heidelberg,Berlin, (2015:198–212.

98. Konert J, Moll F. Entwicklung der Urologie nach dem 2. Weltkrieg. In: Konert J (Hrsg) Illustrierte Geschichte der Urologie. Springer, Heidelberg, Berlin, 2004.

99. Kostakis AJ, White DJG, Calne RY. Prolongation of rat heart allograft survival by cyclosporin A. Int Res Commun Syst Med Sci. 1977;5:280.

100. Kreidl A. Diskussionsbeitragzur Nierentransplantation. Münch Med Wschr. 1902;49(1):469.

101. Kuo CJ, Chung J, Fiorentino DF, Flanagan WM, Blenis J, Crabtree GR. Rapamycin selectively inhibits interleukin-2 activation of p70 S6 kinase. Nature. 1992;358(6381):70-73. https://doi.org/10.1038/358070a0

102. Ku¨ss R, Bourget P. An illustrated history of organ transplantation: The great adventure of the century, p. 53. Sandos, Rueil-maloncison, France, 1992.

103. Ku¨ss R, Legrain M, Mathe G, Nedey R, Camey M. Homologous human kidney transplantation: Experience with six patients. Postgrad Med J. 1962;38:528-531.

104. Ku¨ss R, Teinturier J, Milliez P. Quelques essais de greffe rein chez l’homme. Mem Acad Chir. 1951;77:755-764.

105. Ku¨ss R. Human renal transplantation memories, 1951 to 1981. In History of transplantation: Thirty-five recollections (ed. Terasaki P), 1991:37-59. UCLA Tissue Typing Laboratory, Los Angeles.

106. Küss R, Gregoir W. Latransplantationdurein. In: Küss R (Hrsg) Histoire illustree de L’Urologie. Les editions Roger Dacosta, Paris, 1988:423–437 (Chapitre XII).

107. Lance EM, Medawar PB. Quantitative studies on tissue transplantation immunity. IX. Induction of tolerance with antilymphocytic serum. Proc R Soc B. 1969;173:447–473.

108. Lawler RH, West JW, McNulty PH, Clancy EJ, Murphy RP. Homotransplantation of the kidney in the human. JAMA. 1950;144:844–845.

109. Legendre C, Kreis H A tribute to Jean Hamburger’s contribution to organ transplantation. Am JTransplant. 2010;10(11):2392–2395.

110. Leonhardt H. Alexis Carrell Der Begründer der Operationstechnik für Gefäßnaht und Organüber-pflanzungen. In: Schwerte H, Spengler W (Hrsg) For-scher und Wissenschaftler im heutigen Europa. Erforscher des Lebens: Mediziner Reihe: Gestalter unserer Zeit, Bd. 4. Stalling, Oldenburg, 1955:45–52.

111. Lesky E Die erste Nierentransplantation Emerich Ullmann (1861–1937). Münch Med Wschr. 1974;116(21):1081–1084.

112. Levey RH, Medawar PB. Nature and mode of action of antilymphocytic antiserum. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1966;56:1130–1137.

113. Lillie FR. The theory of the Freemartin. Science 43:1916.

114. Lindbergh CA. Autobiography of values, 1978:32. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York.

115. Lobenhoffer W Funktionsprüfung an transplantierten Nieren. Mitt Grenzgeb Med Chir. 1913;26:197–238.

116. Loeb L. The biological basis of individuality, 1945:98–106. Thomas, Springfield, IL.

117. Maciocia G. The Foundations of Chinese Medicine: A Comprehensive Text. Elsevier Health Sciences UK; 2015.

118. Madineh SMA. Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine and Modern Urology: part I: bladder and its diseases. Urol J. 2008;5(4):284-293.

119. Magoha GA, Ngumi ZWRenaltransplantation during the twentieth century: A review. East Afr Med J. 2001;78(6):317–321.

120. MaibaumM. Die Geschichteder Nierentransplantation Inaugural Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde. Universitätsklinikum Münster, Münster, 2002.

121. Main JM, Prehn RT. Successful skin homografts after the administration of high dosage x radiation and homologous bone marrow. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1955;15:1023-1029.

122. Malinin TI. Surgery and life, the extraordinary career of Alexis Carrel, 1979:22–29. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York.

123. Malpighi M. De Viscerum Structura Exercitatio Anatomica. Petrus le Grand; 1669. https://books.google.es/books?id=n-hbAAAAcAAJ

124. Mann FC. Transplantation of organs. In Contributions to medical science: In honor of Emanuel Liebman. International Press, New York, 1932.

125. Mannick JA, Lochte HL, Ashley CA, Thomas ED, Ferrebee JW. A functioning kidney homotransplant in the dog. Surgery. 1959; 46:821–828.

126. Marchioro TL, Huntley RT, Waddell WR, Starzl TE. Extra-corporeal perfusion for obtaining postmortem homografts. Surgery. 1963;54:900-911.

127. Marcén R. Immunosuppressive Drugs in Kidney Transplantation: Impact on Patient Survival, and Incidence of Cardiovascular Disease, Malignancy and Infection. Drugs. 2009;69(16):2227-2243. https://doi.org/10.2165/11319260-000000000-00000

128. Margreiter R, Mühlbacher F The history of organtransplantationinAustria.EurSurg. 2014;46:65–73.

129. Marketos SG, Eftychiadis AG, Diamandopoulos A. Acute renal failure according to ancient Greek and Byzantine medical writers. J R Soc Med. 1993;86(5):290-293.

130. Markic D, Valencic M, Maricic A, Spanjol J, Racki S, Fuckar Z. Kidney transplantation. 2012.

131. Markmann JF, Kawai T. The quest for transplantation tolerance: How we finally sipped from the cup. Sci Transl Med. 2012;4:2–3.

132. Martin CE. John Hunter and tissue transplantation, 1970.

133. Matevoissian E, Kern H, Hüser N, Doll D, Snopok Y, Nährig J, Altomonte J, Sinicina I, Friess H, Thorban S. Surgeon Yurii Voronoy (1895–1961) – pioneer in the history of clinical transplantation: in Memoriam at the 75th Anniversary of the first human kidney transplantation Transplant International. 2009:1132–1139.

134. Matevossian E, Kern H, Hüser N, et al. Surgeon Yurii Voronoy (1895-1961) – a pioneer in the history of clinical transplantation: in memoriam at the 75th anniversary of the first human kidney transplantation. Transpl Int. 2009;22(12):1132-1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1432-2277.2009.00986.x

135. Mathur AK, Xing J, Dickinson DM, et al. Return on investment for financial assistance for living kidney donors in the United States. Clinical Transplantation. 2018;32(7):e13277. https://doi.org/10.1111/ctr.13277

136. Mazengenya P, Bhikha R. Revisiting Avicenna’s (980–1037 AD) anatomy of the abdominal viscera from the Canon of Medicine. Morphologie. 2018;102(338):225-230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.morpho.2018.05.002

137. McDonald JC. The national organ procurement and transplantation network. JAMA. 1988;259:725–726.

138. McGeown MG. Clinical Management of Renal Transplantation. Springer Netherlands; 2013. https://books.google.es/books?id=7WmSBgAAQBAJ

139. McKellar S. Surgical limits: The life of Gordon Murray. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 2003.

140. Mebel M Development of the kidney. Z Uro Nephrol. 1974;67(10):745–747.

141. Mebel M, May G, Althaus P Der komplette Nierenersatz? Aufbau und Entwicklung der Nierentransplantation in der DDR. Pabst Science Publishers, Lengerich, Berlin, Bremen, 2003.

142. Medawar PB. The behavior and fate of skin autografts and skin homografts in rabbits. J Anat. 1944;78:176–199.

143. Medawar PB. The immunology of transplantation. In Harvey Lecture Series, 1956–1957. 1958;52:144–176. Academic Press, New York.

144. Medawar PB. The strange case of the spotted mice and other classic essays on science. Oxford University Press, New York. 1996.

145. Merrill JP, Murray JE, Harrison JH, Friedman EA, Dealy JB Jr, Dammin GJ. Successful homotransplantation of the kidney between nonidentical twins. N Engl J Med. 1960;262:1251–1260.

146. Merrill JP, Murray JE, Harrison JH, Guild WR. Successful homotransplantation of the human kidney between identical twins. JAMA. 1956;160:277–282.

147. Metchnikoff I. Etude sur la resorption des cellules. 1899.

148. Michallek R, Michallek F. Über die resorbierbare Gefäßprothese aus Magnesium um 1900. Gefäßchirurgie. 2013;18:224–230.

149. Michaēlidēs D, ed. Medicine and Healing in the Ancient Mediterranean World. Oxbow Books; 2014.

150. Michon L, Hamburger J, Oeconomos N. Une tentative de transplantation rénale chez l’homme. Presse Med. 1953;61:1419.

151. Mitchison NA. Passive transfer of transplantation immunity. Proc R Soc Series B. 1954;142:72–87.

152. Monaco AP, Clark AW, Wood ML, Sahyoun AJ, Codish SD, Brown RW. Possible active enhancement of a human cadaver renal allograft with antilymphocyte serum (ALS) and donor bone marrow. Surgery. 1976;79:384–392.

153. Monaco AP, Wood ML, Russell PS. Studies on heter ologous antilymphocyte serum in mice. III. Immunologic tolerance and chimerism produced across the H-2 lo-. 1966.

154. Morel L, Papin E. Lesapplications physiologiques et chirurgicales des transplantations rénales, Biologie médicale. Revue Bimestrielle Des Sci Biol Considérées Dans Leur Rapports Avec La Médicine. 1913;11:401–411.

155. Motta PM. Marcello Malpighi and the foundation of microscopic anatomy. Prog Clin Biol Res. 1989;295:3-6.

156. Murphy JB. Factors of resistance to heteroplastic tissue-graftings. III. Studies in tissue specificity. J Exp Med. 1914a.;19:513-522.

157. Murphy JB. Heteroplastic tissue grafting effected through Roentgen-ray lymphoid destruction. JAMA. 1914b;62:1459.

158. Murray JE. Nobel Prize lecture: The first succesful organ transplants in man. In: Terasaki, 1991.

159. Murray JE, Merill JP, Harrison JH. Renal homotransplantation in identical twins. Surg Forum. 1955;88:379–411.

160. Murray JE, Merrill JP, Dammin GJ, Dealy JB, Alexandre GPJ, Harrison JH. Kidney transplantation in modified recipients. Ann Surg. 1962;156:337-355.

161. Murray JE, Merrill JP, Harrison JH Kidney transplantation between seven pairs of identical twins. Ann Surg. 1958;148:343–359.

162. Murray JE, Merrill JP, Harrison JH, Wilson RE, Dammin GJ. Prolonged survival of human kidney homografts by immunosuppressive drug therapy. N Eng J Med. 1963;268:1315-1323.

163. Murray JE, Merrill JP, Harrison JH. Renal homotransplantation in identical twins. Surg Forum. 1955;6:432–436.

164. Nagy J A note on the early history of renaltransplantation: Emerich(Imre) Ullmann. Am JNephrol. 1999;19(2):346–349.

165. National Academy of Sciences. National Research Council. Transplantation. 1964;2:147-165.

166. Neuhof H. Transplantation of tissues. Renal heterotransplantationinman. Ann Surg. 1964;160:384.

167. Opelz G, Dharmendra PS, Senger DPS, Mickey MR, Terasaki PI. Effect of blood transfusions on subsequent kidney transplantation. Trans Proc. 1973;4:253-259.

168. Owen RD. Immunogenetic consequences of vascular anastomoses between bovine twins. Science. 1945;102:400–407.

169. Palmer JF, ed. The complete works of John Hunter. J. & H.G. Langley, London. 1835;2:56,97-104.

170. Payne R. Leukocyte agglutination in human sera: Correlation between blood transfusions and their development. JAMA. 1957;99:587–606.

171. Payr E Beiträge zur Technik der der Blutgefäß und Nervennaht nebst Mitteilungen über die Verwendung eines resorbierbaren Metallesinder Chirurgie. Arch Klin Chir. 1900;62:67–72.

172. PI (Hrsg) History of Transplantation: Thirty-five Recollections. Tisue Typing Laboratory. UCLA, Los Angeles, S 112–143.

173. Pollock G. Cases of skin grafting and skin transplantation. Trans Clinic Soc .1871;4:37–47.

174. Poulakou-Rebelakou E, Marketos SG. Kidney disease in Byzantine medical texts. Am J Nephrol. 1999;19(2):172-176. https://doi.org/10.1159/000013446

175. Price D, Grove, Calvo V, Avruch J, Bierer B. Rapamycin-induced inhibition of the 70-kilodalton S6 protein kinase. Science. 1992;257(5072):973-977. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1380182

176. Pritchard DI. Sourcing a chemical succession for cyclosporin from parasites and human pathogens. Drug Discovery Today. 2005;10(10):688-691. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-6446(05)03395-7

177. Reverdin JL. Greffe e´pidermique. Bull De La Socie´t´e Imp´eriale Chirurgicale de Paris. 1869: 511–515.

178. Richards AN, Walker AM. Methods of collecting fluid from known regions of the renal tubules of amphibia and of perfusing the lumen of a single tubule. American Journal of Physiology-Legacy Content. 1936;118(1):111-120.

179. Richet G. Hamburger’s achievement with earlyrenaltransplants. Am JNephrol. 1997;17:315–317.

180. Salem ME, Eknoyan G. The kidney in ancient Egyptian medicine: where does it stand? Am J Nephrol. 1999;19(2):140-147. https://doi.org/10.1159/000013440

181. Sands JM. Micropuncture: unlocking the secrets of renal function. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2004;287(5):F866-867. https://doi.org/10.1152/classicessays.00019.2004

182. Scarborough J. Galen’s investigations of the kidney. Clio Med. 1976;11(3):171-177.

183. Schlich THow gods and saints. Hist Sci. 1995;33(101):311–331.

184. Schlich T. Die Erfindung der Organtransplantation Erfolg und Scheitern des chirurgischen Organersatzes (1880–1930). Campus, Frankfurt, New York, 1998: 27.

185. Schlich T. The Origins of Organ Transplantation: Surgery and Laboratory Science, 1880-1930. University of Rochester Press; 2010.

186. Scho¨ne G. Die heteroplastische und homooplastische. Springer, Berlin. 1912.

187. Schultheiss D, Jardin A. Rene Küss (1913–2006) A Transplant Pioneer in Paris. Transplant Proc Eur Urol. 2013;45(3):1220–1223.

188. Schwartz R, Dameshek W. Drug-induced immunological tolerance. Nature. 1959;183:1682–1683.

189. Schwartz R, Dameshek W. The effects of 6-mercaptopurine on homograft reactions. J Clin Invest. 1960;39:952–958.

190. Shah MH. The General Principles of Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine. Vol 1. Naveed Clinic; 1966.

191. Silverstein AM. The lymphocyte in immunology: From James B. Murphy to James L. Gowans. Nat Immunol. 2001;2:569–571.

192. Simonsen M. Biological incompatibility in kidney transplantation in dogs. II. Serological investigations. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand. 1953. 32:35–84.

193. Simonsen M. The impact on the developing embryo and newborn animal of adult homologous cells. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand. 1957;40:480–500.

194. Simonsen M. Graft vs. host reactions: The history that never was and the way things happen to happen. Immunol Rev. 1985;88:5–23.

195. Snell GD. Methods for the study of histocompatibility genes. J Genet. 1948;49:87–108.

196. Starzl TE. History of clinical transplantation. World JSurg. 2000;24:759–765.

197. Starzl TE, Demetris AJ, Murase N, Ildstad S, Ricordi C, Trucco M. Cell migration, chimerism, and graft acceptance. Lancet. 1992;339:1579–1582.

198. Starzl TE, Demetris AJ, Murase N, Trucco M, Thomson AW, Rao AS. The lost chord: Microchimerism. Immunol Today. 1996;17:577–588.

199. Starzl TE, Demetris AJ, Trucco M, Zeevi A, Ramos H, Terasaki P, Rudert WA, Kocova M, Ricordi C, Ildstad S, et al. Chimerism and donor-specific nonreac-tivity 27 to 29 years after kidney allotransplantation. Transplantation. 1993;55:1272–1277.

200. Starzl TE, Groth CG, Brettschneider L, Penn I, Fulginiti VA, Moon JB, Blanchard H, Martin AJ Jr, Porter KA. Orthotopic transplantation of the human liver. Ann Surg. 1967b;168:392–415.

201. Starzl TE, Klintmalm GBG, Porter KA, Iwatsuki S, Schroter GPJ. Liver transplantation with use of cyclosporin A and prednisone. N Engl J Med. 1981;305:266-269.

202. Starzl TE, Marchioro TL, Porter KA, Iwasaki Y, Cerilli GJ. The use of heterologous antilymphoid agents in canine renal and liver homotransplantation and in human renal homotransplantation. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1967a;124:301–308.

203. Starzl TE, Marchioro TL, Waddell WR. The reversal of rejection in human renal homografts with subsequent development of homograft tolerance. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1963;117:385–395.

204. Starzl TE, Todo S, Fung J, Demetris AJ, Venkataramanan R, Jain A. FK 506 for human liver, kidney and pancreas transplantation. Lancet. 1989;2:1000-1004. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(89)91014-3

205. Starzl TE, Weil R III, Iwatsuki S, Klintmalm G, Schroter GPJ, Koep LJ, Iwaki Y, Terasaki PI, Porter KA. The use of cyclosporin A and prednisone in cadaver kidney transplantation. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1980;151:17–26.

206. Starzl TE. My thirty-five year view of organ transplantation. In History of clinical transplantation. Thirtyfive. 1990.

207. Starzl TE. History of clinical transplantation. In Historicallandmarksinclinicaltransplantation (ed. Groth CG, Longmire WP Jr), 2000:759–782. Springer, New York.

208. Stefoni S, Campieri C, Donati C, Orlandi V. The history of clinical renal transplantation. J Nephrol. 2004;17(3):475–478.

209. Stich R. Zur Transplantation von Organen mittels Gefäßnaht. Langenbecks Arch. 1907;83:494–504.

210. Tagliacozzi G. Decurtorum cirugia per insitionum. Bindonum, Venice, Italy. 1597.

211. Taylor, John H. Journey through the Afterlife: Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead. Harvard Univ Press; 2013.

212. Terasaki PI, McClelland JD. Microdroplet assay of human serum cytoxins. Nature. 1964;204: 998–1000.

213. Terasaki PI. Histocompatibility. History of transplantation. In History of transplantation: Thirty-five recollections (ed. Terasaki P), 1990:513–538. UCLATissue Typing Laboratory, Los Angeles.

214. Terasaki PI. Historical landmarks in clinical transplantation: Conclusions from the consensus conference at the University of California, Los Angeles. World J Surg. 2000;24:755–843.

215. Thomas J, Carver M, Cunningham P, Park K, Gonder J, Thomas F. Promotion of incompatible allograft acceptance in rhesus monkeys given posttrans-plant antithymocyte globulin and donor bone marrow. I. In vivo parameters and immunohistologic evidence suggesting microchimerism. Transplantation. 1987;43:332–338.

216. Tilney NL. Transplant: From myth to reality. Yale University Press, New Haven. 2003.

217. Ting A, Morris PJ. Matching for B cell antigens of the HLA-DR series in cadaveric renal transplantation. Lancet. 1978;311:575–577.

218. Tucker EL, Smith AR, Daskin MS, et al. Life and expectations post-kidney transplant: a qualitative analysis of patient responses. BMC Nephrology. 2019;20(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12882-019-1368-0

219. Ullmann E. Experimentelle Nierentransplantation. Wien Klin Wschr. 1902;11:281–285.

220. Ullmann E. Tissue and organ transplantation. Ann Surg. 1914;60:195–219.

221. Unger E. Nierentransplantationen. Berl Klin Wschr. 1910;47:573–578.

222. Unger E. Über Nierentransplantationen. Berl Klin Wschr. 1909;46:1057–1060.

223. Unger E. Kidney transplantation [in German]. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 1910;47:573.

224. Ussing HH, Zerahn K. Active transport of sodium as the source of electric current in the short-circuited isolated frog skin. Acta Physiol Scand. 1951;23(2-3):110-127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1716.1951.tb00800.x

225. van Gelder T, Hesselink DA. Mycophenolate revisited. Transpl Int. 2015;28(5):508-515. https://doi.org/10.1111/tri.12554

226. van Rood JJ, Eernisses JG, van Leeuwen A. Leucocyte antibodies in sera from pregnant women. Nature. 1958;181:1735–1736.

227. Vargas A, López M, Lillo C, Vargas MJ. El papiro de Edwin Smith y su trascendencia médica y odontológica. Revista médica de Chile. 2012;140(10):1357-1362. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0034-98872012001000020

228. Ventura-Aguiar P, Campistol JM, Diekmann F. Safety of mTOR inhibitors in adult solid organ transplantation. Expert Opinion on Drug Safety. 2016;15(3):303-319. https://doi.org/10.1517/14740338.2016.1132698

229. Vesalius A 1514-1564. De Humani Corporis Fabrica : Basel, 1543. Octavo edition. Palo Alto, CA : Octavo; 1998. https://search.library.wisc.edu/catalog/999877146002121

230. Villard E, Tavernier L. La transplantation du rein. Press Med. 1910;18:489–492.

231. von Decastello A. Ueber experimentelle Nierentranplantation.WienKlinWschr. 1902;15:317–322.

232. Voronoy U. Blocking the reticuloendothelial system in man in some forms of mercuric chloride intoxication and the transplantation of the cadaver kidney as a method of treatment for the anuria resulting from the intoxication [in Spanish]. Siglo Med. 1937;97:296.

233. Voronoy YY. Sobre el bloque del aparato retículoendotelial del hombre en algunas formas de intoxicatión por el sublimado y sobre la transplantación delrinón cadvérico come método de tratamiento de la anuria consecutiva a aquella intoxicación. El Siglo Medico. 1936;97:296–297.

234. Waksman BY, Arbouys S, Arnason BG. The use of specific “lymphocyte” antisera to inhibit hypersensitive reactions of the “delayed” type. J Exp Med. 1961;114:997–1022.

235. Wearn JT, Richards AN. Observations on the composition of glomerular urine, with particular reference to the problem of reabsorption in the renal tubules. American Journal of Physiology-Legacy Content. 1924;71(1):209-227.

236. WinklerEA. Ernst Unger: A Pioneer in modern Surgery. JHist Med Allied Sci. 1982;XXXVII:269–286.

237. Witkowski JA. Carrel’s immortal cells. Med Hist. 1980;24:129–142.

238. Wolfe RA, Ashby VB, Milford EL, et al. Comparison of Mortality in All Patients on Dialysis, Patients on Dialysis Awaiting Transplantation, and Recipients of a First Cadaveric Transplant. New England Journal of Medicine. 1999;341(23):1725-1730. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199912023412303

239. Wood K, Sachs DH. Chimerism and transplantation tolerance: Cause and effect. Immunol Today. 1996;17:541–590.

240. Woodruff MFA, Anderson NF. Effect of lymphocyte depletion by thoracic duct fistula and administration of anti-lymphocytic serum on the survival of skin homografts in rats. Nature. 1963;200:702.

241. Young RH. Dr Richard Bright–father of medical renal disease. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2009;133(9):1365. https://doi.org/10.1043/1543-2165-133.9.1365

242. Zaaijer JH. Dauerresultat einer autoplastischen Nierentransplantation bei einem Hunde. Bruns Beitr Klein Chir. 1914;93:223–227.

243. Zeitlhofer H. Emerich Ullmann (1861–1937) Pionier der Organtransplantation und Kunstsammler. Bibliothek der Ärzte in Wien Gesellschaft der Ärzte in Wien, Billrothhaus, Wien. 2016.

244. Zhang R, Kumar P, Ramcharan T, Reisin E. Kidney transplantation: the evolving challenges. Am JMed Sci. 2004;328(3):156–161.

245. Zimmerman KW. One leg in the grave: The miracle of transplantation of the black leg by Saint Cosmos and Damian. Elsevier, Maarssen, The Netherlands. 1998.

246. Zukowski CF, Lee HM, Hume DM. The prolongation of functional survival of canine renal homograftts by 6-mercaptopurine. Surg Forum. 1960;11:470–474.